How Salty Is the Ocean

The ocean is made up of salt water, which is a combination of fresh water, plus minerals collectively called salts. These salts arent just sodium and chloride (the elements that make up our table salt), but other minerals such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium, among others. These salts get into the ocean through several complex processes, including coming from rocks on land, volcanic eruptions, the wind and hydrothermal vents. How much of these salts are in the ocean? The salinity (saltiness) of the ocean is about 35 parts per thousand. This means that in every liter of water, there are 35 grams of salt, or about 3.5 percent of the weight of sea water comes from salts. The salinity of the ocean remains fairly constant over time. It does differ slightly in different areas, though. The average ocean salinity is 35 parts per thousand but can vary from about 30 to 37 parts per thousand. In some areas near shore, fresh water from rivers and streams may cause the ocean to be less salty. The same may happen in polar areas where there is a lot of ice—as the weather warms and the ice melts, the ocean will have less salinity. In the Antarctic, the salinity can be around 34 ppt in some places. The Mediterranean Sea is an area with more salinity, because it is relatively closed-off from the rest of the ocean, and has warm temperatures leading to lots of evaporation. When water evaporates, the salt is left behind. Slight changes in salinity can change the density of ocean water. More saline water is denser than water with fewer salts. Changes in temperature can affect the ocean as well. Cold, salty water is denser than warmer, fresher water, and can sink beneath it, which can influence the movement of ocean water (currents). How Much Is Salt in the Ocean? According to the USGS, there is enough salt in the ocean so that if you removed it and spread it evenly over the Earths surface, it would be a layer about 500 feet thick. Resources and Further Information Helmenstine, A.M. Why Is the Ocean Salty?. About.com. Accessed March 18, 2013.Office of Naval Research. Ocean Water: Salinity. Accessed March 31, 2013.NASA. Salinity. Accessed March 31, 2013.National Earth Science Teachers Association: Windows to the Universe. The density of Ocean Water. Accessed March 31, 2013.NOAA. Salinity Data. NOAA National Oceanographic Data Center. Accessed March 18, 2013.Rice, T. 2009. Why Is the Sea Salty. In Do, Whales Get the Bends?. Sheridan House: New York.

The Importance of Ethics in Business Essay - 1475 Words

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that deals with the principles correlated to human behavior concerning the rightness and wrongness of specific conduct, and to the good and bad that influences and ends those actions (Ditonary.com, 2011). In other words, ethics is the choice people effect in regards to a decision they need to achieve. Without ethics directing the choice an individual makes, moral preferences of what should or should not be done becomes irrelevant. While ethical decisions are made every day there are two different regions in which these choices are made. Personal ethics are something that everyone has, but ones deeds decide whether the choices are the right ones or the wrong ones. Prior to World War II society as a†¦show more content†¦Codes of conduct are policies including rules such as maintaining honesty, attitude, and respect (Traveler, 2009) for co-workers, the organization and customers. Only by separation of personal ethical choices in the work place, will an organization succeed and flourish. It is never appropriate for any employee, management or otherwise, to conduct business for personal gain. The people who become harmed lose trust, confidence, and the expectation of themselves and of the people who chose to put their personal ethical choice before the needs of the customer and business. National Business Laws Conducting business in the United States is regulated by different types of laws. The definition of business law, also known as commercial law, is the governing of transactions between business entities. These include all aspects such as advertising, collection, banking, contracts, and trade in general (Legal-Dictonary.com, 2011). Business laws consist of federal, state, and local laws that all organizations small or large must abide by. Federal laws are comprised to include industry laws and regulations, employment and labor laws, handling of legal concerns, and understanding fair practice (SBA.gov, 2011). State laws vary depending on which state the company operates from, and the type of industry. State laws affect all corporations from banks to health care, mortgage companies to retail. Local laws are specific to the town or city the businessShow MoreRelatedImportance of Business Ethics988 Words   |  4 PagesTopics of Content Introduction............................................................................................................................1 Business Ethics.......................................................................................................................2 Disadvantages of Unethical Behavior....................................................................................2 Case Study.......................................................................Read More International Business: The Importance of Ethics in Business1636 Words   |  7 PagesInternational Business The business world has always relied heavily on contractual agreements while conducting business. These contracts while written in ink, are set in stone. 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The purpose of this paper is to explain the importance of international business, emphasiseRead MoreThe Importance of Business Ethics in Ireland2432 Words   |  10 PagesThe Importance of Business Ethics in Ireland Sonia Lorena Richards Cross cultural Human Relations and Negotiations April 27, 2010 Globalization has created opportunities for countries like Ireland to flourish. â€Å"Ireland is now classed as a high income economy by the World Bank on the basis of gross national income (Chhokar 365).† The importance of business ethics is fairly new in Ireland. Explanations for this might be sought in the country’s colonial history and late economic developmentRead MoreThe Importance of Ethics and Values in Business Sustainability1326 Words   |  6 PagesBusiness Management Research Assignment (chapter 5 11) Q1: The importance of ethics and values in business sustainability: Ethics has to do with an individual’s judgment and their morals. Their ethics help us determine right from wrong. â€Å"Values are attitudes towards things like truths, justice, honesty etc.†( Nieuwenhuizen, Oosthuizen Drotskie 2012:95) Ethics and values are important within a business organisation because they influence morals and decisions within an organisation and need toRead MoreThe Importance of Ethics and Values in Business Sustainability1050 Words   |  4 PagesTHE IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS AND VALUES IN BUSINESS SUSTAINABILITY What are Ethics and Values? Ethics are the principles that regulate the conduct of an activity and values are the judgement of what is important in life. Businesses are often tempted to make short‑term gains by turning a blind eye to what’s right. Despite codes of conduct, regulatory omission and ever‑increasing public pressure, many firms routinely ignore ethical considerations. Some even claim that a business simply needs to abide byRead MoreThe Importance of Ethics and Values in Business Organizations1954 Words   |  8 PagesSection A Question one: Explain the importance of ethics and values in business sustainability? Introduction: Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and the society according to (BBC ethics 2014). Ethics in general builds a person’s character which is portrayed by his/her behaviour. Business ethics can be defined as a way of which people and institutions should behave in the world of commerce. Most businesses are profit driven and by examining constraints or profit for self-interestRead MoreImportance of Ethics in Business as an Academic Discipline8970 Words   |  36 PagesIntroduction to Business Ethics 2. Ethics as an Academic Discipline 3. Importance of Ethics in Business as an Academic Discipline 4. The Case Against Business Ethics Education 5. Conclusion 0.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Question 1: Discuss the importance of Ethics in business as an Academic Discipline. 0.3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In today’s highly competitive, performance-driven business climate, regulations are not enough; professional ethics codes are not enough; the old model of â€Å"business ethics†Read MoreImportance Of Ethics On Accounting And Business At Large2556 Words   |  11 PagesThe Importance of Ethics in Accounting Zachary J. Blake ACCT 302--B01 LUO 06OCT14 â€Æ' The Importance of Ethics in Accounting Abstract: Ethics are of the utmost concern within accounting and business at large. Ethics are the standard by which we make moral choices and decisions in our lives. In business and accounting, ethics give external users such as stakeholders, venture capitalists, and others a measure by which they can weigh financial statements and information to see if they are accuratelyRead MoreThe importance of ethics and values in business sustainability. Before explaining the importance1000 Words   |  4 Pages The importance of ethics and values in business sustainability. Before explaining the importance of ethics and values in business, we have to define the following: Ethics: The ability of an individual to distinguish their moral judgements about right and wrong. Values: These are the moral standards and principles that a person considers to be important. They work hand in hand with ethics. Sustainability: meeting the challenges of ensuring that future generations can enjoy the same kind of lifestyles

Why Georgetown free essay sample

Throughout my academic life, I have ventured down many paths. I have explored a wide array of subjects and interests, and found those which I am passionate about. However, no matter where I have roamed intellectually, one thing has always been constant: my love of words, and my craving for expression. From a young age, I found the written word both intriguing and inescapable; I read to fill my time and wandered into the unknown worlds of my books, returning to reality often only for meals. As I grew older, all of the words that I collected in my mind began to pour out in the form of new ideas which I wrote down and cherished. As a high school student, I have come to realize that my words are precious, not only to myself but to others as well. I began sharing my work with the world through publications like Teen Ink, a magazine and website written entirely by teenagers. We will write a custom essay sample on Why Georgetown? or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I entered my work into essay contests, and found success. My love of writing was nurtured in countless ways when I attended a two week writing program in New York City this past summer. It was during those two vital weeks that I became aware of my potential as a writer, and how it connected to my future. In my college years, I hope to accomplish many things; however, I believe that my continued education would be a waste if I do not utilize my talent for writing to better the world. With this in mind I have decided to pursue a bachelor’s degree in Linguistics, a major that I feel is the perfect unity of my passions. During my time in high school I have extensively studied both German and Latin, and I have enjoyed learning both languages immensely. I have found that my ability to write is not limited to English; I am capable of expressing my unique ideas regardless of what language I am writing in. By studying Linguistics, I hope to hone my skills as a translator, as this is a career choice that I have often considered a good match for my abilities. A degree in Linguistics, however, would not limit me to one career pathway; this is perhaps why I am so drawn to this specific major. Through my studies in linguistics, I would acquire skills that could transfer into multiple vocat ions including law and psychology, two other careers that I have considered. I believe that I would be a skillful lawyer because of my excellent communication abilities and a successful psychologist due to my insightful nature. (I attribute the precision of my insight to the author within me.) An undergraduate degree in Linguistics would provide me with a multi-faceted foundation, one that I would have the flexibility to use in many potential careers. Due to its relative obscurity, there are not many academic institutions which have the faculty to maintain a reputable course of Linguistics study; I have understood this from the moment I realized that Linguistics was the major I would like to pursue. Because of its unmatched Linguistics program and its overall academic excellence, Georgetown University is therefore the ideal institution for my undergraduate studies. I look forward to continuing my education at such an esteemed university, and I am confident that an educational foundation from Georgetown will pilot me to boundless places and opportunities, fulfilling my academic and intellectual goals as only a Hoya Saxa experience could.

Persuasive Essay free essay sample

Did you know that students are now required to complete at least ten hours of community service in order to graduate? In order for students to have a more positive experience, school administrators should add more activities within the guidelines. Some activities that will give students a more positive experience are serving at food kitchens, disturbing gifts at salvation armies, and helping out at nursing homes. Community service should be a positive experience for all students. The first activity that should be included in the guidelines for community service is serving food at food kitchens. This activity will be positive for students because they’ll be helping to feed the homeless. Also students will be able to see the happiness they bring to others by giving back. This option should be added to the guidelines because it’s an amazing opportunity. Students are able to help others, which is something they’ll feel good about afterwards. We will write a custom essay sample on Persuasive Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Students are also influenced to further their education and do well in life so their never put in that predicament. Student will enjoy working in food kitchens as a community service. Students are more likely to enjoy community service if school administrators add more to the guidelines. During Christmas time, the Salvation Army would be an excellent place to earn community service hours. This is good for students because they’re helping provide families that are less fortunate gifts to give to their children. Students also help create a food box for the family to take home so they have food for the holidays. This activity should be added to the guidelines because it’ll be a life changing experience for the students. Students will be less likely to judge others because of the clothes they wear. Plus their helping some families feel more positive about Christmas. Helping in salvation armies would be a wonder experience for students as a community service. There are many activities that students could particpate in and have a positive expierence. Helping in nursing homes is one of them. This is positive cause students are able to help the elderly. Students also are able to learn from the wise and get good advice on life. This should be added to the guidelines because students are being positively influenced. Their helping those who really need it. Their also being taught new things and receiving wise advice from the elderly. Helping at nursing homes should be added to the guidelines. With these three activities, students will receive a much more positive experience while doing their community service. Students are more likely to learn more with these activities. School adminstrarors will be impressed with the effect that that these activities will have on students, which is why they should consider adding them the guildlines. Persuasive Essay free essay sample Every teacher has a different set of rules in their classroom. Anyone you talk to has that one teacher with the most irrelevant rule you could think of. In school, there is a diverse population of students that tend to need a variety of guidance to assist them through the day. One of the most common rules a teacher has is, no food in the classroom. This rule should be removed from every teacher’s classroom for the following reasons: not enough time to eat a healthy breakfast, having enough energy, and keeping focus in class. One of the many reasons students should be able to eat in class is due to that us students don’t have enough time to wake up earlier and cook our self a nice meal. We barely have enough time to get ready for school in the mornings. It is even harder, trying to eat breakfast, if a student has to ride the bus or walk everyday. We will write a custom essay sample on Persuasive Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page All of the years that I’ve been attending school there have not been a year when teachers don’t emphasize how important eating breakfast is. We have heard multiple of times â€Å"the most important mean of the day is breakfast. † This is the main reason why we should be allowed to eat. Another reason why students should be able to eat in class is because teachers are allowed to eat in front of us but we can’t do the same. We should have to follow the same rules. There has been a time where I go to school with any empty stomach and I always see a teacher eating something and it makes me focus on that. Seeing them eat doesn’t let me concentrate and it makes me hungrier seeing and smelling it. Finally, why teachers should let kids eat in class, is because kids will have energy to participate in class. Shouldn’t all teachers want to see all their students hands up wanting to answer questions? If teachers would just give it a chance and let students eat in class they would be participating in school activities and fund raisers. In conclusion, the rule, â€Å"no eating in class† should be obliterated. Because students do not have enough time to eat a healthy breakfast, having enough energy, and keeping focus in class. Students will be more active, get better grades, and overall would likely be more willing to come to school. Think about the students and what will make the environment for them easier and more enjoyable for their time in school. Persuasive Essay free essay sample Persuasive essay – bullying For many years now the issue of bullying has been present. Some people think that bullying is good on the other hand, other argue that bullying cause negative effects. In this essay I will try to convince you of this. I’m not the only one who thinks bullying causes victims and broken hearts. Many people argue that all young people have experienced some form of bullying. You can see that bullying is affecting some people and in many serious cases people are too scared to come to school. One other effect of bullying is that it causes headache or stomachache and other have trouble concentrating on school work. Children who are bullied have higher rates of depression, anxiety, low self-esteem and other mental health conditions. Children who are bullied are more likely to think of suicide. Research suggests that bullying must stop. This is because is not only physical bullying; bullying can also be in the form of verbal bullying and cyber bullying. We will write a custom essay sample on Persuasive Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Verbal bullying includes teasing, name calling, racial slurs, as well as spreading gossips or rumors. On the other hand cyber bullying includes harassing emails, instant messages, as well intimidating or threatening websites, blogs and posts. All of these forms of bullying can cause psychological damage to a person which can lead to more serious problems. Can you believe that despite all of the evidence, some people still think that bullying is a good behavior and not a bad thing? People argue that bullying makes her or him popular and it’s a cool thing. How silly and crazy are these people? I hope that you’re not one of them! It doesn’t matter how you look at it, bullying causes victims and people with no friends. Bullying is very important issue that needs to be stopped. Overall it is obvious that bullying is a big issue that affects a lot of people. Do you want to cause problems and headache for people? If not you must stop bullying today! Persuasive Essay free essay sample Aside from not having a winning record in almost a decade, the Rams have also finished in the bottom five in attendance each of the past four seasons. The NFL decided that it was time for a change and made a lot of Californians happy with this decision. The Rams will stay in the NFC West, keeping the current landscape in place, assuring the young Rams team an easy transition to California. Los Angeles is one of the biggest markets in the country; it has two basketball teams, a hockey team, a soccer team and a baseball team, all of which thrive economically. The one key ingredient that was missing was a football team. While the previous football teams that were located in L. A. faltered because of poor attendance and a struggling California economy, AEG knows that won’t be the case today. Fans have been waiting 16 long years for a football team, and attendance numbers of the cities college team, the USC Trojans, indicate that fans are still here and ready to fully support the team. We will write a custom essay sample on Persuasive Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Having the Rams move to Los Angeles was ideal for both AEG and the NFL because the Rams already had ties with the city because they played their previously. This also allows FOX, the conference’s television provider, a share of the country’s second biggest market. Construction of the new stadium, known as Farmers Field, has already begun with plans in place that it will be completed by the winter of 2012. The most intriguing statistic about the construction of the stadium is not how it looks, but how it will be built. . Farmer’s Field will set the standard in environmental sustainability with plans that used far less steel and concrete any other new stadiums and will feature solar technologies. In fact, an environmental report stated that the location selected is the best possible spot for a professional football team. Located at the â€Å"Grand Crossing†, the stadium is located on the border of four different counties meaning that the stadium would be within an hour drive of 15. 5 million. To put that into prospective, that’s five percent of the country’s entire population. With this foundation set in place, we know that the NFL and city of Los Angeles will have a strong partnership for years to come. Why St. Louis? Why not expand? When making the decision on which team AEG and the NFL wanted to relocate, two things factored into their decision, these were attendance and on-field performance. While they narrowed their list down to five teams, which included the Jacksonville Jaguars and San Diego Chargers, only one stuck out which were the Rams. Each team presented a strong case but St. Louis was the only team that struggled in both categories. The Rams have not reached the playoffs since the 2003 season, which was also the last time that Rams finished with a winning record. An even worse statistic would be that the Rams have finished in the bottom five in attendance each of the past four seasons. Here is look at the Rams 2011 attendance statistics, they finished 31st out of 32 teams. The chart shows only home attendance figures. We know that the Rams are a promising young team with a bright future and would have hated to see a team not be supported in St. Louis. We have a franchise quarterback in Sam Bradford, as well as a Pro Bowl running back in Stephen Jackson. We have no doubt that this team will soon become a threat in the NFC West and we are happy to bring the team to a city we know will support them. The Rams will play there farewell season in 2012 then make their move back to the city they once called home. When considering a new team, Commissioner Goodell also weighed the option of expanding to 34 teams. The problem with a possible expansion though is that the NFL would still have to find new homes for the struggling teams. Commissioner Goodell also is weary of changing the current landscape of the NFL. You can’t just add one team if you are going to expand because that would leave the NFL with an uneven number of teams. Two teams would have to be added and it is unknown whether the NFL is currently prepared to expand, having just recently done so in 2002 with the Houston Texans. This would also leave two divisions with five teams, creating all types of scheduling issues. In the end, Commissioner Goodell felt that if this move turns out to be a successful venture, then he would be able to expand later down the road. He would do this by adding another team, in the AFC, to Los Angeles creating a situation like that of the New York Giants and Jets. He would then be able to move another struggling team to a new city if needed. This current idea is believed to be the best case scenario for the NFL and its success now depends on the Rams. Can Los Angeles support a team? Back in 1994, when two NFL teams still called Los Angeles home, they both struggled to fill up their stadium with fans. Filling up the Coliseum, which has the capacity of 90,000, was a monumental task for any team, let alone two in the same city. The facility was old and a renovation was needed but was never passed because the city did not want to fund the project because both teams weren’t selling enough tickets. Not many people could afford every things, let alone expensive football tickets. As you know, Los Angeles is movie town before it is a sports town. It is much harder for a celebrity to be seen at a football game than if they just go to a Lakers game. The city was also going through a tough time financially and all of California was in mini recession. Unfortunately for the NFL, they were the odd man out and have never been able to return to Los Angeles until now. With all the negatives out of the way, I can now get to why we know Los Angeles can support a team this time around. 15 of the top 20 attendance figures in the NFL were in Los Angeles. The Rams also set the all-time attendance record in 1957 with over 102,000 fans packing the Coliseum. While Los Angeles and Southern California loves baseball and basketball, the huge crowds that attend football games in LA are proof enough that the city of Angels is indeed a football town. The Rams drew well above the NFL average during their existence and the USC and UCLA football programs draw well above 60 and 70 thousand fans on a regular basis. On top of the overwhelming support for the local teams, the Los Angeles area produces many college football and NFL stars. As a matter of fact, the Pac-12 conferences success has a lot to do with the vast amount of football talent in the Los Angeles area. California definitely has its problems, there is no doubt about that and the states financial crisis has reared its ugly head in San Diego and San Francisco in their search for a new stadium. Los Angeles, however, is immune from the states budget crisis because our stadium proposal will be funded 100% by private funds. While public funds may work in some cities with the right deal, L. A. is not one of those towns and this is why AEG has stepped up to the plate offering their own money to build a stadium and bring the NFL back to Los Angeles. Los Angeles’s football history was shaped by the Rams and we are happy to be bringing that tradition back. Finally, a very common misconception is the fact that Los Angeles is full of bandwagon fans that only support a winner. While winning helps any teams attendance figures, Los Angeles has a history of supporting teams in the good and bad years. The Los Angeles Dodgers continually have one of the highest attendance figures and they have not won a championship since 1988. Even with the troubles the team has been going through with ownership and sub-par performance on the field, the Dodgers are still in the top 10 in attendance. The Angels also have a history of fans coming out to support them even in the bad years. Before their world championship in 2002, they drew well over two million fans a season (also well above the Major League average) despite having an abysmal record and only making the playoffs three times in 42 years. After 2002, they have drawn over three million fans a season and in 2011, they are the only team in the top 5 in attendance to not make the playoffs in 2010. The Lakers obviously have a very large fan base because of their winning history, but they filled the Forum and fill Staples Center when they have down years. The Clippers, on the other hand, do not have a winning history and have only made it out of the first round of the playoffs once in franchise history. Despite the Clippers uninspiring history, they still draw above the NBA average with almost 18,000 fans a game. Los Angeles will definitely support a National Football League franchise . . . something they did for 50 years before the Rams left. Los Angeles’s pro football history is defined by the Rams, and we are hoping to return them to glory in their L. A. return. Farmers Field Farmers Field, located at Grand Crossing will set the standard in environmental sustainability with plans that used far less steel and concrete than any other stadiums. The stadium will also feature a solar technology which allows the stadium to use on average 40% less energy. All fans love new stadiums, and we have no doubt that we will have the best facilities in the NFL. The stadium will feature 75,000 seats, 12,500 club seats, and 175 suites. The capacity is much smaller than the Coliseum, creating a sense of urgency for fans that want to buy tickets. We also understand the football is football unless you tailgate, which is why we are proud that our 600-acre facility offers the perfect tailgate experience. Plans include wave pools for surfing, mountain walls for rock climbing and a one-of-a-kind skate park for future X-Games. In addition, large amounts of open space will allow for the traditional tailgate activities that fans have enjoyed for decades like grills, coolers and parking lot games. This is what football is all about! Farmers Field will also generate over 18,000 jobs and millions of dollars of revenue for the entire Southern California region without public investment. Like we mentioned previously, the stadium is 100% privately funded by AEG, meaning the stadium will produce over 700 million dollars per year for the entire region. The stadium is convenient to and accessible by three major metro rail lines (red/purple line, blue line, and exposition line), and further provides connectively to Union station. The site is also served by more than 20 freeway interchanges and 4 major freeways. The new facilities will continue using the successful traffic and parking model employed by STAPLES Center and the Los Angeles Convention Center to manage traffic and parking. This is a proven model to accommodate large events. There are currently approximately 32,000 parking spots within a 15 minute walk of Farmers Field and 10,300 of them are onsite. Farmers Field will be completed later this year and is ready to give back to the wonderful city of Los Angeles. Summary I understand that many people doubt that this relocation will work, but there is no doubt in my mind that Los Angeles is ready to fully support a football team. Franchises that are struggling financially are only hurting the NFL and cities don’t deserve to have a team is they are only going to support hem if they win. Moving a team back to Los Angeles, we already know that there is plenty of fan support here. Fans in this area are some of the most passionate fans in all of sports; we know that they will support a team through thick and thin. However, we are not just moving the team; we are changing ownership which means the tides are turning. We are not just bringing the team to Los Angeles to play football; we are bringing them here to start a new winning tradition. After 16 long years, the NFL will make its long overdue return to the city of Angels, and this time it is here to stay. Persuasive Essay free essay sample Some people believe that paying athletes would destroy the main reason of universities which is to revive education. The lifetime skills and education that athletes receive while in college cannot be equal to the amount they would receive were they to be paid. Most athletes are also on scholarship, and they are getting a very expensive education paid for, when they could just be swimming in student loans. Athletes also know about their contracts with the colleges when signing scholarship agreements.The university takes care of their living needs and gives them an opportunity to play their preferred sport at a higher level as well as earning a degree in their chosen subject. Payment is not mentioned in he contract and there should not be any expectancy of it during the students stay in the university. I believe that athletes make up the main unit of college vs. college sports. We will write a custom essay sample on Persuasive Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Despite the success of NCAA tournaments, athletes do not receive any money, even when they are the ones providing the entertainment.The main reasons provided by the NCAA for not paying their athletes are that it wants to keep its amateur ways and that payment would change and ruin the trustworthiness of different college sports. It has gotten its bigger profits from the sale of merchandise, television rights and licenses for video games. Athletes are very active in the promotion of these activities but they dont get anything from the profits that are made. This is very unethical, and can be seen as exploitation. Other students on scholarships are paid when they offer services to their schools and it should be the same for athletes. This is because athletes make more for their colleges than other students. So much that in some cases, sports have become the main thing of some colleges. Using this information, universities like Alabama and Indiana are more well known because of their football and basketball instead of academic reasons. In conclusion, I believe that non-scholarship athletes should get compensation.If not a paycheck, then at least money toward their tuition fees. They are taking time out of their day, to entertain the common people. Athletes on scholarships do get some spending money if they do well during the season. Some get paid under the table, but in my opinion it ruins their integrity and makes them become self righteous, therefore ruining their skill, and giving the colleges no reason to pay them anymore. So non-scholarship athletes should get paid. It is still in question whether or not students with a scholarship should or shouldnt get paid.

Blood Essays - Transfusion Medicine, Blood Donation, Hematology

Blood There is a crisis. It is the shortage of blood. We need more blood donors. There's no substitute for human blood -- vital for delivering oxygen and nutrients, removing waste, healing and fighting infection. A person's blood can, however, be shared with others. Every day, thousands of Americans in need of lifesaving blood, including trauma victims and surgery patients, rely on the efforts of volunteer blood donors. We need a steady flow of blood donors to keep our blood supply stable. Many people are eligible to be donors. The biggest requirement is being healthy. Approximately 4 million Americans receive donated blood each year; a demand of nearly 40,000 units each day. Donating blood is a simple, relatively painless procedure that requires a small time commitment. Understanding the steps involved with donating can make it easier for those who may be considering rolling up their sleeves. In addition to good health, blood donors must weigh at least 110 pounds, be at least 18 years of age or be 16 and have parental permission. Those who are currently taking any medications such as aspirin, allergy medication, sleeping pills and Tylenol are still eligible to donate, as are those who have received a hepatitis B vaccine. People who cannot donate include anyone who has a blood-borne disease or who might be at high risk of contracting one. Other conditions excluding potential donors are being pregnant, having low iron or having a cold or the flu. There is no charge for blood. And prior to donating, volunteers must complete a standard screening procedure. This includes filling out a questionnaire on health history and answering standard health screening questions. Donors will then receive a brief physical exam, which includes reading of temperature, pulse and a test for anemia. Donors who satisfy screening requirements will then have approximately one pint of blood extracted. The entire process usually lasts about 45 minutes. Donating blood takes only from 5 to 7 minutes. Giving blood is safe. No one gets any disease by donating. A sterile needle is used once for each donor and then destroyed. Blood donors can usually resume normal activities within 10 to 15 minutes after donating. It's recommended that a person first sit down, rest momentarily and consume liquids. Since a person's blood volume will be reduced by 10 percent from donating blood, it is also recommended that volunteers avoid strenuous physical activities immediately following. Fluids lost from donating blood are usually replenished within 24 hours, while it can take several weeks to replace lost red blood cells. Because of this, volunteers must wait eight weeks between donation times. To avoid bruising in the arm, donors should also steer clear of heavy lifting for several hours. Some people feel afraid the first time they donate. You'll find out your fears are exaggerated. But you'll find it out only after you've donated. Some people think that they don't have blood to spare. The average adult body has about 10 to 12 pints of blood. You give one pint of blood when you make a whole blood donation, and your blood volume will be replaced within 24 hours. Some people say that it's too inconvenient to donate blood. Simply make an appointment for the time that's convenient for you. If the blood center isn't convenient for you, just call a recruitment department and they'll find a blood mobile that is. Usually churches, businesses, schools and civic organizations in your community host bloodmobiles every day of the week. Most often some people say that they'll only give in an emergency situation. It can take 24-48 hours to complete the laboratory tests that must be done on every unit of blood. Blood must be donated before an emergency arises. It's simply not feasible to try to save your blood in case someone you know needs it. Currently less than 5% of those eligible to give blood actually do. The demand for blood and blood products is constantly increasing, and those increasing needs can only be met by an increasing amount of donors. More blood donations are needed now than at any other time in our nation's history. The American Red Cross had recently reported that there has been a critical shortage

THE DESTRUCTION OF MAN KIND Essays - Forest Conservation

THE DESTRUCTION OF MAN KIND Essays - Forest Conservation THE DESTRUCTION OF MAN KIND "We know there will be problems in environmental terms, many serious problems, but it is a matter of economics. There won't be any complete disaster, and what we cannot solve, well, that's the price we have to pay." - Eduardo Albuquerque Barbosa There is a constant war that is being fought in the rainforests of South America. The death toll is one that far surpasses any other war in history. Vietnam and World War II had minimal loss of life compared to this never ending battle. It is predicted that by the year 2020, the casualties will reach 150 per day. This total does not even include the loss of human life due to the lack of oxygen and the unsuitable living conditions. This horrible scenario would be the result of mankind's failure to cooperate and live in harmony with the environment, especially the rainforest of South America. In the end, the destruction of the rainforests will mean the destruction of mankind. The devastation of the rainforest may be compared to playing a game of Russian Roulette. One-forth of existing medicines are derived from tropical plants whose homes are in the rainforests of South America. For every acre that is lost in the burning season, there is one acre less that we have for possible life saving medicines. About 70 percent of plants used in anti-cancer drugs come from the rain forest. We are slowly destroying ourselves and the environment. Whether we realize it or not, the world could quickly come to an ecological halt. Every day 144,000 acres of the rainforests are cut down, slashed and/or put up in flames. In 1974, Brazil started a forest fire of 20.6 million square feet (3,900 square miles). The fire ragged out of control and was later marked the largest forest fire in Brazilian history. This 1974 fire is now considered small to others in the past recent years. On average the burning season lasts up to four months out of the whole year. During this period of time, it is not uncommon for the majority of South America to be covered in a thick blanket of smoke. The bulk of these fires, when combined, are equivalent to the great inferno of 1988 at Yellow Stone National Park. Emitted from these devastating fires every year are billions of carcinogens and poisonous gases that end up in the atmosphere. The gases and pollution have been building for many years, and scientists believe that the atmosphere is due to reach its saturation point very soon. The greed for money and lust for land are just two flames at the heart of the fire. At the expense of innocent lives of rainforest dwelling animals and local environmentalists, large corporations can some how justify there murderous means. Rainforests cover only a mere seven percent of the earth's land surface, yet they contain 50 percent of the world's species. Along with the thousands of animals in these century old forests, there are many tribes of Indians who are subjected to torment and usually death from the large companies. Heartless Corporations such as Endesa, Arboriente and PICOP ignore the blockades of the FPA, "Forest Peoples' Alliance", and the perpetual pleas of the Scientist's who predict, "tropical species are disappearing at a rate that could conceivably reach as high as 150 species a day by the year 2020" Landry, (5). Unfortunately this battle comes down to economics versus environment, and so far the environment is losing the war. Chico Mendes' death finally brought the much needed world wide attention to the rainforests. Until 1988 the astonishing figures produced by environmentalist and scientists never had much weight on the conscience of countries outside of the Amazon Rain Forest. The death of Mendes was the second death of a NCRT, National Council of Rubber Tappers, member in recent times. The fight, " at first, was only about ecology, and defending the fishes, the animals, the forest, and the river. They didn't realize that humans were also in the forest" Rodrigues, Revkin (1). Though Chico was a rubber tapper in the town of Xapuri, he spent most of the year traveling around the world trying to gain support in his fight against the destruction of the rainforest . Chico's non-violent approach won him much favor from the United States and all of the other rubber tappers. Chico Mendes once said, "If a messenger came down from heaven and guaranteed that my death would strengthen our struggle, it would even be worth it. But experience teaches us the opposite. Public rallies

Law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Law - Assignment Example (Carlill v. Carbolic Smoke Ball Company 1893 1 qb 256). Acceptance is a final and unqualified expression of assent to the terms of an offer [G.H. Treitel, The Law of Contract, 10th edn, p.16]. The Employer, Conventina Motors, has offered Steven to work for them as a parts distribution salesman. And Steven has accepted their employment offer to work for them. This means a proper contract has been established between Conventina Motors and Steven. Consideration: This means something bargained for and received by a promisor from a promisee. The common types of consideration consists of real or personal property, a return promise, some act, or a forbearance. The consideration by Conventina Motors towards Steven may not only include his salary but also other responsibilities like Steven’s mental, health, emotional and/or environmental safety etc. And likewise Steven’s consideration towards the company can be his loyalty, responsibility and promise to follow the rules and regulation binding on him due to the employment contract. Capacity: In contract law, capacity means a persons ability to satisfy the elements required to enter binding contracts. For example, it often requires a person to have reached a minimum age and to have soundness of mind. Conventina Motors is an established company and Steven is an adult. Therefore both fulfill the required capacity rules to enter into a valid contract. Legality: The contract made, must be enforceable by law. Only then, the contract is said to be legally binding. Conventina Motors is an established company having proper employment contracts with its workers, therefore the contract with Steven is legally binding and has certain obligations that needs to be followed by both the parties in the contract. As discussed above, Conventina Motors and Steven have entered into a legal employment contract with each other. The contract includes rules and obligations that

The Founding Docs of the U.S. Governmen Assignment

The Founding Docs of the U.S. Governmen - Assignment Example merican Enlightenment through its postulates which emphasize social justice with regards to financial independence, citizenship rights, paid employment and social welfare (Hofstader, 1989). It laid the foundation for emancipation of slaves and blacks to bring them into the mainstream of American society facilitating equal rights and equal opportunities in all areas for everyone, including blacks and ethnic minority. The sovereignty of state and powers of the government was embedded in the constitution of America. Representative republican governance indicated democratic framework of the constitution. The republic structure of governance was considered as the American experiment mainly because it helped test the moral implications of the principles of the constitution and its flexibility in incorporating the changes. The Bill of Rights was important legal document fulfills principles of American enlightenment while satisfying views of both federalists and non federalists. It paved way for reforms in constitution through amendments. It empowered Americans to make decisions about their political and social equity. The federal structure of governance with its dual nature, it was able to focus on development of people and region while wider policies of national interest like defense etc. remained the responsibility of the federal Union of America. Thus, it promotes responsible use of power in implementing the democratic rights of individuals while judiciously executing its rights to power. (words:

Otherness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Otherness - Essay Example The domination of Native Americans by European settlers, relegated them to no longer be masters of their identity. In films and books they were portrayed as savage and ignorant. They met the typical definition of the other in that in the eyes of the dominant group they lacked some â€Å"essential quality† (The Other, 2010). This othering of a group within society has very negative consequences. It is well illustrated in Sherman Alexie’s story â€Å"This Is What It Means to Say Phoenix, Arizona.† This stpry shows readers about life on a reservation. Identity is at its heart; especially the tension between an identity you make for yourself and one that is given to you by someone more powerful. Alexie's story tells the reader a great deal about what life can be like for Native Americans. It shows the serious social conditions on reservations and the breakdown of family relations due to substance abuse and other problems. The truth is that many Native Americans today live in the shadow of a trauma that was done to them many years ago. We have to have a sense of history if we are to understand people like Victor or Thomas Builds the Fire. These are men who are placed outside of society and whose sense of self is shaped not by their own dreams and ambitions but by a relentless effort to define them as others, as not full citizens. It is no wonder that faced with this kind of onslaught so many Native Americans struggle with substance abuse problems. The fact that much of the plot of this story takes place on a reservation is key. The Natives have been separated from the rest of society. They live on their small plots of lands with their own rules. They are not assimilated. In fact, few people know much about them. They are, in a sense, outside of history. History plays a major role in defining identities. What Alexie manages to show us, however, is how the characters in his story are more than blank canvasses or merely Other—they are real l ive human beings, facing their own struggles to shape their own place in the world. They are, for example, still able to forgive one another, as Thomas Builds the Fire is willing to forgive Victor. Thomas is passionate about storytelling—to him it is a ways to find his own place in the world and take some control over his circumstances. This is how a group defined as Others does its best to fight back—by telling its own stories about itself. In this story, it is Thomas who is ostracized on the reservation. Alexie represents otherness through the treatment of Thomas by the band. Anyone who is seen to have an imagination is considered to be different. Thomas tells the â€Å"same damn story over and over again† (Alexie, 62), and for this reason in part is seen to be different. When he breaks his leg, he is hated, for being imaginative enough to embrace his dream, even if only for a moment. This is how otherness is represented. Alexie’s perspective on otherne ss is surely a part of his own personal experiences growing up as an Indian in America. He grew up on a Washington reservation as part of a marginalized community. On top of that, he had a childhood disease which marked him out as different (Konigsberg). These things certainly shaped his relationships with others. He must have felt like an outsider looking in, a victim of other peoples’ preconceptions about him. It is useful to teach our children about these kinds of issues because they crop up everywhere in society. However, the discussion can be a little complex. The

Practices of Agile Methods in Project Management

Practices of Agile Methods in Project Management Abstract This paper describes the practices of agile methods from the viewpoint of project management. The project management techniques are complex processes that require the understanding and coordination of several domains of knowledge. As more and more software projects engage Agile Methods, there are emerging patterns of success and failure. With growing adoption of Agile Methods, project managers increasingly need to understand the applicability to their projects and factors that drive key project performance characteristics. Agile Methods have advantages, especially in accommodating change due to volatile requirements. However, they also present concomitant risks with managing the many dependent pieces of work distributed across a large project. The paper is divided into four parts. In the first part an overview of the project management and its processes and knowledge areas discussed. after that the agile methods discussed following with a short history of RAD(We should mention that just three most used and famous methodologies are discussed). In the second part the project management approaches and a brief definition of each approach are given. In the third part we looked at the agile methodologies from project management areas view such as cost, time, quality and risk management and we compared agile methodologies and we explained their advantages and disadvantages. In the fourth part we discussed about combination of agile methodologies and their utilization in large and complex projects. And finally we propose our own idea about the future of project management in agile methods. Keywords Project Management, Rapid Development Methodologies, Agile Project Management, History of RAD, Project management approaches, Agile Performance Measurement, Investment and Risk, Agile Enterprise Framework, Agile Methodology Fit Introduction What is Project? A human activity that achieves a clear objective against a time scale A project is a one-shot, time-limited, goal-directed, major undertaking, requiring the commitment of varied skills and resources. A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service. A project is temporary in that there is a defined start (the decision to proceed) and a defined end (the achievement of the goals and objectives). Ongoing business or maintenance operations are not projects. Energy conservation projects and process improvement efforts that result in better business processes or more efficient operations can be defined as projects. Projects usually include constraints and risks regarding cost, schedule or performance outcome. What is Project Management? Many have attempted to define project management. One example, Oisen,3 referencing views from the 1950s, may have been one of the early attempts. Project Management is the application of a collection of tools and techniques (such as the CPM and matrix organization) to direct the use of diverse resources toward the accomplishment of a unique, complex, one-time task within time, cost and quality constraints. Each task requires a particular mix of theses tools and techniques structured to fit the task environment and life cycle (from conception to completion) of the task. Notice in the definition are included some the success criteria, The Iron triangle. Those criteria for measuring success included in the description used by Oisen3 continue to be used to describe project management today. The British Standard for project management BS60794 1996 defined project management as: The planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project and the motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the specified cost, quality and performance. The UK Association of project Management (APM) have produced a UK Body of Knowledge UK (BoK)5 which also provides a definition for project management as: The planning, organization, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project and the motivation of all involved to achieve the project objectives safely and within agreed time, cost and performance criteria. The project manager is the single point of responsibility for achieving this. Other definitions have been offered, Reiss6 suggests a project is a human activity that achieves a clear objective against a time scale, and to achieve this while pointing out that a simple description is not possible, suggests project management is a combination of management and planning and the management of change. Locks7 view was that project management had evolved in order to plan, co-ordinate and control the complex and diverse activities of modern industrial and commercial projects, while Burke8 considers project management to be a specialized management technique, to plan and control projects under a strong single point of responsibility. While some different suggestions about what is project management have been made, the criteria for success, namely cost, time and quality remain and are included in the actual description. Could this mean that the example given to define project management Oisen3 was either correct, or as a discipline, project management has not really changed or developed the success measurement criteria in almost 50 years. Project management is a learning profession. Based upon past mistakes and believed best practice, standards such as BS 60794 and the UK Body of Knowledge5 continue to be developed. But defining project management is difficult, Wirth,9 indicated the differences in content between six countries own versions of BoKs. Turner10 provided a consolidated matrix to help understand and moderate different attempts to describe project management, including the assessment. Turner10 further suggested that project management could be described as: the art and science of converting vision into reality. Note the criteria against which project management is measured is not included in that description. Is there a paradox however in even attempting to define project management? Can a subject which deals with a unique, one-off complex task as suggested as early as Oisen3 be defined? Perhaps project management is simply an evolving phenomena, which will remain vague enough to be non-definable, a flexible attribute which could be a strength. The significant point is that while the factors have developed and been adopted, changes to the success criteria have been suggested but remain unchanged. Could the link be, that project management continues to fail because, included in the definition are a limited set of criteria for measuring success, cost, time and quality, which even if these criteria are achieved simply demonstrate the chance of matching two best guesses and a phenomena correctly. Prior to some undergraduate lectures and workshops about project management, the students were asked to locate some secondary literature describing project management and produce their own definition. While there were some innovative ideas, the overriding responses included the success criteria of cost, time and quality within the definition. If this is the perception about project management we wish those about to work in the profession to have, the rhetoric over the years has worked. Has this ho wever been the problem to realizing more successful projects? To date, project management has had the success criteria focused upon the delivery stage, up to implementation. Reinforced by the very description we have continued to use to define the profession. The focus has been to judge whether the project was done right. Doing something right may result in a project which was implemented on time, within cost and to some quality parameters requested, but which is not used by the customers, not liked by the sponsors and does not seem to provide either improved effectiveness or efficiency for the organization, is this successful project management? Project Management Life Cycle The process flow of Project management processes is shown below. The various elements of project management life cycle are Need identification Initiation Planning Executing Controlling Closing out a) Need Identification The first step in the project development cycle is to identify components of the project. Projects may be identified both internally and externally: Internal identification takes place when the energy manager identifies a package of energy saving opportunities during the day-to-day energy management activities, or from facility audits. External identification of energy savings can occur through systematic energy audits undertaken by a reputable energy auditor or energy service company. In screening projects, the following criteria should be used to rank-order project opportunities. Cost-effectiveness of energy savings of complete package of measures (Internal rate of return, net present value, cash flow, average payback) Sustainability of the savings over the life of the equipment. Ease of quantifying, monitoring, and verifying electricity and fuel savings. Availability of technology, and ease of adaptability of the technology to Indian conditions. Other environmental and social cost benefits (such as reduction in local pollutants, e.g. SOx) b) Initiation Initiating is the basic processes that should be performed to get the project started. This starting point is critical because those who will deliver the project, those who will use the Bureau of Energy Efficiency project, and those who will have a stake in the project need to reach an agreement on its initiation. Involving all stakeholders in the project phases generally improves the probability of satisfying customer requirements by shared ownership of the project by the stakeholders. The success of the project team depends upon starting with complete and accurate information, management support, and the authorization necessary to manage the project. The initiation stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas: Analyzing the business needs/requirements in measurable goals Reviewing of the current operations Financial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budget Stakeholder analysis, including users, and support personnel for the project Project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule c) Planning The planning phase is considered the most important phase in project management. Project planning defines project activities that will be performed; the products that will be produced, and describes how these activities will be accomplished and managed. Project planning defines each major task, estimates the time, resources and cost required, and provides a framework for management review and control. Planning involves identifying and documenting scope, tasks, schedules, cost, risk, quality, and staffing needs. The result of the project planning, the project plan, will be an approved, comprehensive document that allows a project team to begin and complete the work necessary to achieve the project goals and objectives. The project plan will address how the project team will manage the project elements. It will provide a high level of confidence in the organizations ability to meet the scope, timing, cost, and quality requirements by addressing all aspects of the project. Project planning generally consists of determining how to plan (e.g. by level of detail or rolling wave); developing the scope statement; selecting the planning team; identifying deliverables and creating the work breakdown structure; identifying the activities needed to complete those deliverables and networking the activities in their logical sequence; estimating the resource requirements for the activities; estimating time and cost for activities; developing the schedule; developing the budget; risk planning; gaining formal approval to begin work. Additional processes, such as planning for communications and for scope management, identifying roles and responsibilities, determining what to purchase for the project and holding a kick-off meeting are also generally advisable. For new product development projects, conceptual design of the operation of the final product may be performed concurrent with the project planning activities, and may help to inform the planning team when identifying deliverables and planning activities d) Executing Once a project moves into the execution phase, the project team and all necessary resources to carry out the project should be in place and ready to perform project activities. The project plan is completed and base lined by this time as well. The project team and the project managers focus now shifts from planning the project efforts to participating, observing, and analyzing the work being done. The execution phase is when the work activities of the project plan are executed, resulting in the completion of the project deliverables and achievement of the project objective(s). This phase brings together all of the project management disciplines, resulting in a product or service that will meet the project deliverable requirements and the customers need. During this phase, elements completed in the planning phase are implemented, time is expended, and money is spent. In short, it means coordinating and managing the project resources while executing the project plan, performing the planned project activities, and ensuring they are completed efficiently. e) Monitoring and Controlling Project Control function that involves comparing actual performance with planned performance and taking corrective action to get the desired outcome when there are significant differences. By monitoring and measuring progress regularly, identifying Bureau of Energy Efficiency variances from plan, and taking corrective action if required, project control ensures that project objectives are met. Monitoring and Controlling includes: Measuring the ongoing project activities (where we are); Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, scope, etc.) against the project management plan and the project performance baseline (where we should be); Identify corrective actions to address issues and risks properly (How can we get on track again); Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are implemented In multi-phase projects,process also provides feedback between project phases, in order to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan. Project Maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes: Continuing support of end users Correction of errors Updates of the software over time Monitoring and Controlling cycle In this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively and quickly user problems are resolved. Over the course of any construction project, the work scope may change. Change is a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the result of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is referred to as Change Management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, as built. The requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts. When changes are introduced to the project, the viability of the project has to be re-assessed. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted result may not justify the original proposed investment in the project. f) Closing out Project closeout is performed after all defined project objectives have been met and the customer has formally accepted the projects deliverables and end product or, in some instances, when a project has been cancelled or terminated early. Although, project closeout is a routine process, it is an important one. By properly completing the project closeout, organizations can benefit from lessons learned and information compiled. The project closeout phase is comprised of contract closeout and administrative closure. This phase consists of: Project close: Finalize all activities across all of the process groups to formally close the project or a project phase Contract closure: Complete and settle each contract (including the resolution of any open items) and close each contract applicable to the project or project phase Project Management Knowledge Areas with the Related Processes Each of the nine knowledge areas contains the processes that need to be accomplished within its discipline in order to achieve an effective project management program. Each of these processes also falls into one of the five basic process groups, creating a matrix structure such that every process can be related to one knowledge area and one process group. Risk Management Software development projects represent an investment of resources by the projects sponsor, an investment that often yields little or no return. The Standish Groups Chaos Report 1994 states that fewer than 10% of software projects in large companies were successful. Medium sized companies do better with 16% of their software projects being successful, and small companies succeed on 28% of their software projects (Standish 1994). Given these statistics it is worthwhile to invest significant effort in Risk Management for software projects. Research at The Standish Group also indicates that smaller time frames, with delivery of software components early and often, will increase the success rate. (Standish 1994). Integration Management Extreme Programming offers nothing to help integrate the efforts of non-software developers. Unfortunately, some advocates of Extreme Programming suggest that the efforts of technical writers, database managers, and quality assurance specialist are not required. In reality, while Extreme Programming does not explicitly describe how to integrate the work of others, the practices do not preclude the ability to integrate with other efforts. Small Releases make Integration Management a more continuous process in contrast to processes that place deployment, documentation, and testing at the end of the schedule. Continuous Integration At a more tactical level, the Extreme Programming practice of Continuous Integration requires that the work of software developers be integrated on a daily basis. While this practice can cause additional overhead for individual developers, it allows the team to identify problems daily that would otherwise become undiscovered rework accumulating until all developers integrate their individual work products. Scope Management Time Management Ask most software development teams for a copy of their project plan and you will receive an activity list formatted as a Gantt chart. Many times these activity lists will describe several phases of activities such as Analysis, Design, Construction, and Testing. Areas of functionality will be broken out under these headings in order to assign them to specific programmers, but seldom are the assignments identified in the Gantt chart clearly traceable back to a Requirement or other specification documents. All too often, the missing item that would help a team improve their planning practices is a well-constructed Work Breakdown Structure. Extreme Programming focuses almost all of its planning efforts on building a thoughtful Work Breakdown Structure and its constituent Work Packages. Extreme Programming does not teach Work Breakdown Structures and Work Packages explicitly, however, careful study of the Story Cards used in Extreme Programming reveals that they are almost identical to Work Packages in their key attributes. Human Resources Management Often one of the most challenging aspects of project management is managing human resources. For software development projects in particular this includes the complex juggling of technical tasks between individual software developers who have different individual skills, effectively treating each developers assigned tasks as an independent subproject. This type of project plan often suffers from key resource bottlenecks and status meetings reduced to determining which individuals are falling furthest behind. Extreme Programming addresses this head-on by eliminating the dependency on individual developers. Work Packages are scheduled and authorized based on the needs of the business and the users not the needs of the software developers. All developers are cross-trained to work in all areas of the code base. Developers broaden their skills, and project managers stop worrying about keeping individual software developers for the entire duration of the project. The process maintains know ledge of the full code base in the team, not in individuals. Quality Management As programmers move from work authorization to work authorization, and often from one area of the code to another, it is easy to see that maintaining quality in the work product could be challenging. Extreme Programming requires a very disciplined design approach to allow freedom in assigning resources while maintaining high quality. Communications Management When a project manager mentions the need for improved communications on a project, software developers often immediately envision an increased number of meetings and documents. While formal meetings and written documents have their place in a communication plan there are many other tools for facilitation of communication between project participants. The Extreme Programming practices include several simple practices intended to enhance communications. Costs Management Often a Project Manager is evaluated on his or her ability to complete a project within budget. The costs include estimated cost, actual cost and variability. Contingency cost takes into account influence of weather, suppliers and design allowances. How the 80/20 Rule can help a project manager? The 80/20 Rule means that in anything a few (20 percent) are vital and many (80 percent) are trivial. Successful Project Managers know that 20 percent of the work (the first 10 percent and the last 10 percent) consumes 80 percent of your time and resources. The History of RAD Traditional lifecycles devised in the 1970s, and still widely used today, are based upon a structured step-by-step approach to developing systems. This rigid sequence of steps forces a user to sign-off after the completion of each specification before development can proceed to the next step. The requirements and design are then frozen and the system is coded, tested, and implemented. With such conventional methods, there is a long delay before the customer gets to see any results and the development process can take so long that the customers business could fundamentally change before the system is even ready for use. In response to these rigid, cascading, one-way steps of Stagewise or Waterfall Models of development, Barry Boehm, Chief SW Engineer at TRW, introduced his Spiral Model. The Spiral Model is a risk-driven, as opposed to code-driven, approach that uses process modeling rather than methodology phases. Through his model, Boehm first implemented software prototyping as a way of reducing risk. The development process of the Spiral Model separates the product into critical parts or levels while performing risk analyses, prototyping, and the same steps at each of these levels. Similarly, Tom Gilbs Evolutionary Life Cycle is based on an evolutionary prototyping rationale where the prototype is grown and refined into the final product. The work of Boehm and Gilb paved the way for the formulation of the methodology called Rapid Iterative Production Prototyping (RIPP) at DuPont in the mid-to-late 1980s. James Martin then extended the work done at DuPont and elsewhere into a larger, more formalized process, which has become known as Rapid Application Development (RAD). RAD compresses the step-by-step development of conventional methods into an iterative process. The RAD approach thus includes developing and refining the data models, process models, and prototype in parallel using an iterative process. User requirements are refined, a solution is designed, the solution is prototyped, the prototype is reviewed, user input is provided, and the process begins again. What is Agility? There is no Agility for Dummies. Agility isnt a silver bullet. You dont achieve it in five easy steps. So what is it? From one view agility characterized in two statements: Agility is the ability to both create and respond to change in order to profit in a turbulent business environment. Agility is the ability to balance flexibility and stability (Highsmith 2002). In an uncertain and turbulent world, success belongs to companies that have the capacity to create change, and maybe even chaos, for their competitors. Creating change disrupts competitors (and the entire market ecosystem); responding to change guards against competitive thrusts. Creating change requires innovation: developing new products, creating new sales channels, reducing product development time, customizing products for increasingly smaller market segments. In addition, your company must be able to respond quickly to both anticipated and unanticipated changes created by your competitors and customers. An example of a product development effort in which all the aspects of agility come into play is that of small, portable DNA analyzers. These instruments can be used for analyzing suspected bio-terror agents (e.g., anthrax), performing quick medical diagnoses, or undertaking environmental bacterial analysis. These instruments must be accurate, easy to use, and reliable under wide-ranging conditions, and their development depends on breakthroughs in nanotechnology, genome research, and micro-fluidics. Developing these leading-edge products requires blending flexibility and structure, exploring various new technologies, and creating change for competitors by reducing delivery time. These are not projects that can be managed by traditional, prescriptive project management methodologies. Some people mistakenly assume that agility connotes a lack of structure, but the absence of structure, or stability, generates chaos. Conversely, too much structure generates rigidity. Complexity theory tells us that innovation—creating something new in ways that we cant fully anticipate (an emergent result) occurs most readily at the balance point between chaos and order, between flexibility and stability. Scientists believe that emergence, the creation of novelty from agent interaction, happens most readily at this edge of chaos. The idea of enough structure, but not too much, drives agile managers to continually ask the question, How little structure can I get away with? Too much structure stifles creativity. Too little structure breeds inefficiency. This need to balance at the edge of chaos to foster innovation is one reason process-centric methodologies often fail. They push organizations into over-optimization at the expense of innovation. Agile organizations dont get lost in some gray middle ground; they understand which factors require stabilization and which ones encourage exploration. For example, in a high-change product development environment, rigorous configuration management stabilizes and facilitates flexibility just as a focus on technical excellence stabilizes the development effort. Overview and definitions The Agile Movement in software industry saw the light of day with the Agile Software Development Manifesto4 published by a group of software practitioners and consultants in 2001 (Beck et al. 2001; Cockburn 2002a). The focal values honored by the agilists are presented in the following: Individuals and interactions over processes and tools Working software over comprehensive documentation Customer collaboration over contract negotiation Responding to change over following a plan These central values that the agile community adheres to are: First, the agile movement emphasizes the relationship and communality of software developers and the human role reflected in the contracts, as opposed to institutionalized processes and development tools. In the existing agile practices, this manifests itself in close team relationships, close working environment arrangements, and other procedures boosting team spirit. Second, the vital objective of the software team is to continuously turn out tested working software. New releases are produced at frequent intervals, in some approaches even hourly or daily, but more usually bi-monthly or monthly. The developers are urged to keep the code simple, straightforward, and technically as advanced as possible, thus lessening the documentation burden to an appropriate level. Third, the relationship and cooperation between the developers and the clients is given the preference over strict contracts, although the importance of well drafted contracts does grow at the same pace as the size of the software project. The negotiation process itself should be seen as a means of achieving and maintaining a viable relationship. From a business point of view, agile development is focused on delivering business value immediately as the project starts, thus reducing the risks of non-fulfillment regarding the contract. Fourth, the development group, comprising both software developers and customer representatives, should be well-informed, competent and authorized to consider possible adjustment needs emerging during the development process life-cycle. This means that the participants are prepared to make changes and that also the existing contracts are formed with tools that support and allow these enhancements to be made. According to Highsmith and Cockburn (2001, p. 122), what is new about agile methods is not the practices they use, but their recognition of people as the primary drivers of project success, coupled with an intense focus on effectiveness and maneuverability. This yields a new combination of values and principles that define an agile world view. Boehm (2002) illustrates the spectrum of different planning methods with Figure 1, in which hackers are placed at one end and the so called inch-pebble ironbound contractual approach at the opposite end: Hawrysh and Ruprecht (2000) state that a single methodology can not work for the whole spectrum of different projects, but instead the project management should identify the specific nature of the project at hand and then select the bes Practices of Agile Methods in Project Management Practices of Agile Methods in Project Management Abstract This paper describes the practices of agile methods from the viewpoint of project management. The project management techniques are complex processes that require the understanding and coordination of several domains of knowledge. As more and more software projects engage Agile Methods, there are emerging patterns of success and failure. With growing adoption of Agile Methods, project managers increasingly need to understand the applicability to their projects and factors that drive key project performance characteristics. Agile Methods have advantages, especially in accommodating change due to volatile requirements. However, they also present concomitant risks with managing the many dependent pieces of work distributed across a large project. The paper is divided into four parts. In the first part an overview of the project management and its processes and knowledge areas discussed. after that the agile methods discussed following with a short history of RAD(We should mention that just three most used and famous methodologies are discussed). In the second part the project management approaches and a brief definition of each approach are given. In the third part we looked at the agile methodologies from project management areas view such as cost, time, quality and risk management and we compared agile methodologies and we explained their advantages and disadvantages. In the fourth part we discussed about combination of agile methodologies and their utilization in large and complex projects. And finally we propose our own idea about the future of project management in agile methods. Keywords Project Management, Rapid Development Methodologies, Agile Project Management, History of RAD, Project management approaches, Agile Performance Measurement, Investment and Risk, Agile Enterprise Framework, Agile Methodology Fit Introduction What is Project? A human activity that achieves a clear objective against a time scale A project is a one-shot, time-limited, goal-directed, major undertaking, requiring the commitment of varied skills and resources. A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service. A project is temporary in that there is a defined start (the decision to proceed) and a defined end (the achievement of the goals and objectives). Ongoing business or maintenance operations are not projects. Energy conservation projects and process improvement efforts that result in better business processes or more efficient operations can be defined as projects. Projects usually include constraints and risks regarding cost, schedule or performance outcome. What is Project Management? Many have attempted to define project management. One example, Oisen,3 referencing views from the 1950s, may have been one of the early attempts. Project Management is the application of a collection of tools and techniques (such as the CPM and matrix organization) to direct the use of diverse resources toward the accomplishment of a unique, complex, one-time task within time, cost and quality constraints. Each task requires a particular mix of theses tools and techniques structured to fit the task environment and life cycle (from conception to completion) of the task. Notice in the definition are included some the success criteria, The Iron triangle. Those criteria for measuring success included in the description used by Oisen3 continue to be used to describe project management today. The British Standard for project management BS60794 1996 defined project management as: The planning, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project and the motivation of all those involved in it to achieve the project objectives on time and to the specified cost, quality and performance. The UK Association of project Management (APM) have produced a UK Body of Knowledge UK (BoK)5 which also provides a definition for project management as: The planning, organization, monitoring and control of all aspects of a project and the motivation of all involved to achieve the project objectives safely and within agreed time, cost and performance criteria. The project manager is the single point of responsibility for achieving this. Other definitions have been offered, Reiss6 suggests a project is a human activity that achieves a clear objective against a time scale, and to achieve this while pointing out that a simple description is not possible, suggests project management is a combination of management and planning and the management of change. Locks7 view was that project management had evolved in order to plan, co-ordinate and control the complex and diverse activities of modern industrial and commercial projects, while Burke8 considers project management to be a specialized management technique, to plan and control projects under a strong single point of responsibility. While some different suggestions about what is project management have been made, the criteria for success, namely cost, time and quality remain and are included in the actual description. Could this mean that the example given to define project management Oisen3 was either correct, or as a discipline, project management has not really changed or developed the success measurement criteria in almost 50 years. Project management is a learning profession. Based upon past mistakes and believed best practice, standards such as BS 60794 and the UK Body of Knowledge5 continue to be developed. But defining project management is difficult, Wirth,9 indicated the differences in content between six countries own versions of BoKs. Turner10 provided a consolidated matrix to help understand and moderate different attempts to describe project management, including the assessment. Turner10 further suggested that project management could be described as: the art and science of converting vision into reality. Note the criteria against which project management is measured is not included in that description. Is there a paradox however in even attempting to define project management? Can a subject which deals with a unique, one-off complex task as suggested as early as Oisen3 be defined? Perhaps project management is simply an evolving phenomena, which will remain vague enough to be non-definable, a flexible attribute which could be a strength. The significant point is that while the factors have developed and been adopted, changes to the success criteria have been suggested but remain unchanged. Could the link be, that project management continues to fail because, included in the definition are a limited set of criteria for measuring success, cost, time and quality, which even if these criteria are achieved simply demonstrate the chance of matching two best guesses and a phenomena correctly. Prior to some undergraduate lectures and workshops about project management, the students were asked to locate some secondary literature describing project management and produce their own definition. While there were some innovative ideas, the overriding responses included the success criteria of cost, time and quality within the definition. If this is the perception about project management we wish those about to work in the profession to have, the rhetoric over the years has worked. Has this ho wever been the problem to realizing more successful projects? To date, project management has had the success criteria focused upon the delivery stage, up to implementation. Reinforced by the very description we have continued to use to define the profession. The focus has been to judge whether the project was done right. Doing something right may result in a project which was implemented on time, within cost and to some quality parameters requested, but which is not used by the customers, not liked by the sponsors and does not seem to provide either improved effectiveness or efficiency for the organization, is this successful project management? Project Management Life Cycle The process flow of Project management processes is shown below. The various elements of project management life cycle are Need identification Initiation Planning Executing Controlling Closing out a) Need Identification The first step in the project development cycle is to identify components of the project. Projects may be identified both internally and externally: Internal identification takes place when the energy manager identifies a package of energy saving opportunities during the day-to-day energy management activities, or from facility audits. External identification of energy savings can occur through systematic energy audits undertaken by a reputable energy auditor or energy service company. In screening projects, the following criteria should be used to rank-order project opportunities. Cost-effectiveness of energy savings of complete package of measures (Internal rate of return, net present value, cash flow, average payback) Sustainability of the savings over the life of the equipment. Ease of quantifying, monitoring, and verifying electricity and fuel savings. Availability of technology, and ease of adaptability of the technology to Indian conditions. Other environmental and social cost benefits (such as reduction in local pollutants, e.g. SOx) b) Initiation Initiating is the basic processes that should be performed to get the project started. This starting point is critical because those who will deliver the project, those who will use the Bureau of Energy Efficiency project, and those who will have a stake in the project need to reach an agreement on its initiation. Involving all stakeholders in the project phases generally improves the probability of satisfying customer requirements by shared ownership of the project by the stakeholders. The success of the project team depends upon starting with complete and accurate information, management support, and the authorization necessary to manage the project. The initiation stage should include a plan that encompasses the following areas: Analyzing the business needs/requirements in measurable goals Reviewing of the current operations Financial analysis of the costs and benefits including a budget Stakeholder analysis, including users, and support personnel for the project Project charter including costs, tasks, deliverables, and schedule c) Planning The planning phase is considered the most important phase in project management. Project planning defines project activities that will be performed; the products that will be produced, and describes how these activities will be accomplished and managed. Project planning defines each major task, estimates the time, resources and cost required, and provides a framework for management review and control. Planning involves identifying and documenting scope, tasks, schedules, cost, risk, quality, and staffing needs. The result of the project planning, the project plan, will be an approved, comprehensive document that allows a project team to begin and complete the work necessary to achieve the project goals and objectives. The project plan will address how the project team will manage the project elements. It will provide a high level of confidence in the organizations ability to meet the scope, timing, cost, and quality requirements by addressing all aspects of the project. Project planning generally consists of determining how to plan (e.g. by level of detail or rolling wave); developing the scope statement; selecting the planning team; identifying deliverables and creating the work breakdown structure; identifying the activities needed to complete those deliverables and networking the activities in their logical sequence; estimating the resource requirements for the activities; estimating time and cost for activities; developing the schedule; developing the budget; risk planning; gaining formal approval to begin work. Additional processes, such as planning for communications and for scope management, identifying roles and responsibilities, determining what to purchase for the project and holding a kick-off meeting are also generally advisable. For new product development projects, conceptual design of the operation of the final product may be performed concurrent with the project planning activities, and may help to inform the planning team when identifying deliverables and planning activities d) Executing Once a project moves into the execution phase, the project team and all necessary resources to carry out the project should be in place and ready to perform project activities. The project plan is completed and base lined by this time as well. The project team and the project managers focus now shifts from planning the project efforts to participating, observing, and analyzing the work being done. The execution phase is when the work activities of the project plan are executed, resulting in the completion of the project deliverables and achievement of the project objective(s). This phase brings together all of the project management disciplines, resulting in a product or service that will meet the project deliverable requirements and the customers need. During this phase, elements completed in the planning phase are implemented, time is expended, and money is spent. In short, it means coordinating and managing the project resources while executing the project plan, performing the planned project activities, and ensuring they are completed efficiently. e) Monitoring and Controlling Project Control function that involves comparing actual performance with planned performance and taking corrective action to get the desired outcome when there are significant differences. By monitoring and measuring progress regularly, identifying Bureau of Energy Efficiency variances from plan, and taking corrective action if required, project control ensures that project objectives are met. Monitoring and Controlling includes: Measuring the ongoing project activities (where we are); Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, scope, etc.) against the project management plan and the project performance baseline (where we should be); Identify corrective actions to address issues and risks properly (How can we get on track again); Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are implemented In multi-phase projects,process also provides feedback between project phases, in order to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan. Project Maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes: Continuing support of end users Correction of errors Updates of the software over time Monitoring and Controlling cycle In this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively and quickly user problems are resolved. Over the course of any construction project, the work scope may change. Change is a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the result of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is referred to as Change Management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, as built. The requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts. When changes are introduced to the project, the viability of the project has to be re-assessed. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted result may not justify the original proposed investment in the project. f) Closing out Project closeout is performed after all defined project objectives have been met and the customer has formally accepted the projects deliverables and end product or, in some instances, when a project has been cancelled or terminated early. Although, project closeout is a routine process, it is an important one. By properly completing the project closeout, organizations can benefit from lessons learned and information compiled. The project closeout phase is comprised of contract closeout and administrative closure. This phase consists of: Project close: Finalize all activities across all of the process groups to formally close the project or a project phase Contract closure: Complete and settle each contract (including the resolution of any open items) and close each contract applicable to the project or project phase Project Management Knowledge Areas with the Related Processes Each of the nine knowledge areas contains the processes that need to be accomplished within its discipline in order to achieve an effective project management program. Each of these processes also falls into one of the five basic process groups, creating a matrix structure such that every process can be related to one knowledge area and one process group. Risk Management Software development projects represent an investment of resources by the projects sponsor, an investment that often yields little or no return. The Standish Groups Chaos Report 1994 states that fewer than 10% of software projects in large companies were successful. Medium sized companies do better with 16% of their software projects being successful, and small companies succeed on 28% of their software projects (Standish 1994). Given these statistics it is worthwhile to invest significant effort in Risk Management for software projects. Research at The Standish Group also indicates that smaller time frames, with delivery of software components early and often, will increase the success rate. (Standish 1994). Integration Management Extreme Programming offers nothing to help integrate the efforts of non-software developers. Unfortunately, some advocates of Extreme Programming suggest that the efforts of technical writers, database managers, and quality assurance specialist are not required. In reality, while Extreme Programming does not explicitly describe how to integrate the work of others, the practices do not preclude the ability to integrate with other efforts. Small Releases make Integration Management a more continuous process in contrast to processes that place deployment, documentation, and testing at the end of the schedule. Continuous Integration At a more tactical level, the Extreme Programming practice of Continuous Integration requires that the work of software developers be integrated on a daily basis. While this practice can cause additional overhead for individual developers, it allows the team to identify problems daily that would otherwise become undiscovered rework accumulating until all developers integrate their individual work products. Scope Management Time Management Ask most software development teams for a copy of their project plan and you will receive an activity list formatted as a Gantt chart. Many times these activity lists will describe several phases of activities such as Analysis, Design, Construction, and Testing. Areas of functionality will be broken out under these headings in order to assign them to specific programmers, but seldom are the assignments identified in the Gantt chart clearly traceable back to a Requirement or other specification documents. All too often, the missing item that would help a team improve their planning practices is a well-constructed Work Breakdown Structure. Extreme Programming focuses almost all of its planning efforts on building a thoughtful Work Breakdown Structure and its constituent Work Packages. Extreme Programming does not teach Work Breakdown Structures and Work Packages explicitly, however, careful study of the Story Cards used in Extreme Programming reveals that they are almost identical to Work Packages in their key attributes. Human Resources Management Often one of the most challenging aspects of project management is managing human resources. For software development projects in particular this includes the complex juggling of technical tasks between individual software developers who have different individual skills, effectively treating each developers assigned tasks as an independent subproject. This type of project plan often suffers from key resource bottlenecks and status meetings reduced to determining which individuals are falling furthest behind. Extreme Programming addresses this head-on by eliminating the dependency on individual developers. Work Packages are scheduled and authorized based on the needs of the business and the users not the needs of the software developers. All developers are cross-trained to work in all areas of the code base. Developers broaden their skills, and project managers stop worrying about keeping individual software developers for the entire duration of the project. The process maintains know ledge of the full code base in the team, not in individuals. Quality Management As programmers move from work authorization to work authorization, and often from one area of the code to another, it is easy to see that maintaining quality in the work product could be challenging. Extreme Programming requires a very disciplined design approach to allow freedom in assigning resources while maintaining high quality. Communications Management When a project manager mentions the need for improved communications on a project, software developers often immediately envision an increased number of meetings and documents. While formal meetings and written documents have their place in a communication plan there are many other tools for facilitation of communication between project participants. The Extreme Programming practices include several simple practices intended to enhance communications. Costs Management Often a Project Manager is evaluated on his or her ability to complete a project within budget. The costs include estimated cost, actual cost and variability. Contingency cost takes into account influence of weather, suppliers and design allowances. How the 80/20 Rule can help a project manager? The 80/20 Rule means that in anything a few (20 percent) are vital and many (80 percent) are trivial. Successful Project Managers know that 20 percent of the work (the first 10 percent and the last 10 percent) consumes 80 percent of your time and resources. The History of RAD Traditional lifecycles devised in the 1970s, and still widely used today, are based upon a structured step-by-step approach to developing systems. This rigid sequence of steps forces a user to sign-off after the completion of each specification before development can proceed to the next step. The requirements and design are then frozen and the system is coded, tested, and implemented. With such conventional methods, there is a long delay before the customer gets to see any results and the development process can take so long that the customers business could fundamentally change before the system is even ready for use. In response to these rigid, cascading, one-way steps of Stagewise or Waterfall Models of development, Barry Boehm, Chief SW Engineer at TRW, introduced his Spiral Model. The Spiral Model is a risk-driven, as opposed to code-driven, approach that uses process modeling rather than methodology phases. Through his model, Boehm first implemented software prototyping as a way of reducing risk. The development process of the Spiral Model separates the product into critical parts or levels while performing risk analyses, prototyping, and the same steps at each of these levels. Similarly, Tom Gilbs Evolutionary Life Cycle is based on an evolutionary prototyping rationale where the prototype is grown and refined into the final product. The work of Boehm and Gilb paved the way for the formulation of the methodology called Rapid Iterative Production Prototyping (RIPP) at DuPont in the mid-to-late 1980s. James Martin then extended the work done at DuPont and elsewhere into a larger, more formalized process, which has become known as Rapid Application Development (RAD). RAD compresses the step-by-step development of conventional methods into an iterative process. The RAD approach thus includes developing and refining the data models, process models, and prototype in parallel using an iterative process. User requirements are refined, a solution is designed, the solution is prototyped, the prototype is reviewed, user input is provided, and the process begins again. What is Agility? There is no Agility for Dummies. Agility isnt a silver bullet. You dont achieve it in five easy steps. So what is it? From one view agility characterized in two statements: Agility is the ability to both create and respond to change in order to profit in a turbulent business environment. Agility is the ability to balance flexibility and stability (Highsmith 2002). In an uncertain and turbulent world, success belongs to companies that have the capacity to create change, and maybe even chaos, for their competitors. Creating change disrupts competitors (and the entire market ecosystem); responding to change guards against competitive thrusts. Creating change requires innovation: developing new products, creating new sales channels, reducing product development time, customizing products for increasingly smaller market segments. In addition, your company must be able to respond quickly to both anticipated and unanticipated changes created by your competitors and customers. An example of a product development effort in which all the aspects of agility come into play is that of small, portable DNA analyzers. These instruments can be used for analyzing suspected bio-terror agents (e.g., anthrax), performing quick medical diagnoses, or undertaking environmental bacterial analysis. These instruments must be accurate, easy to use, and reliable under wide-ranging conditions, and their development depends on breakthroughs in nanotechnology, genome research, and micro-fluidics. Developing these leading-edge products requires blending flexibility and structure, exploring various new technologies, and creating change for competitors by reducing delivery time. These are not projects that can be managed by traditional, prescriptive project management methodologies. Some people mistakenly assume that agility connotes a lack of structure, but the absence of structure, or stability, generates chaos. Conversely, too much structure generates rigidity. Complexity theory tells us that innovation—creating something new in ways that we cant fully anticipate (an emergent result) occurs most readily at the balance point between chaos and order, between flexibility and stability. Scientists believe that emergence, the creation of novelty from agent interaction, happens most readily at this edge of chaos. The idea of enough structure, but not too much, drives agile managers to continually ask the question, How little structure can I get away with? Too much structure stifles creativity. Too little structure breeds inefficiency. This need to balance at the edge of chaos to foster innovation is one reason process-centric methodologies often fail. They push organizations into over-optimization at the expense of innovation. Agile organizations dont get lost in some gray middle ground; they understand which factors require stabilization and which ones encourage exploration. For example, in a high-change product development environment, rigorous configuration management stabilizes and facilitates flexibility just as a focus on technical excellence stabilizes the development effort. Overview and definitions The Agile Movement in software industry saw the light of day with the Agile Software Development Manifesto4 published by a group of software practitioners and consultants in 2001 (Beck et al. 2001; Cockburn 2002a). The focal values honored by the agilists are presented in the following: Individuals and interactions over processes and tools Working software over comprehensive documentation Customer collaboration over contract negotiation Responding to change over following a plan These central values that the agile community adheres to are: First, the agile movement emphasizes the relationship and communality of software developers and the human role reflected in the contracts, as opposed to institutionalized processes and development tools. In the existing agile practices, this manifests itself in close team relationships, close working environment arrangements, and other procedures boosting team spirit. Second, the vital objective of the software team is to continuously turn out tested working software. New releases are produced at frequent intervals, in some approaches even hourly or daily, but more usually bi-monthly or monthly. The developers are urged to keep the code simple, straightforward, and technically as advanced as possible, thus lessening the documentation burden to an appropriate level. Third, the relationship and cooperation between the developers and the clients is given the preference over strict contracts, although the importance of well drafted contracts does grow at the same pace as the size of the software project. The negotiation process itself should be seen as a means of achieving and maintaining a viable relationship. From a business point of view, agile development is focused on delivering business value immediately as the project starts, thus reducing the risks of non-fulfillment regarding the contract. Fourth, the development group, comprising both software developers and customer representatives, should be well-informed, competent and authorized to consider possible adjustment needs emerging during the development process life-cycle. This means that the participants are prepared to make changes and that also the existing contracts are formed with tools that support and allow these enhancements to be made. According to Highsmith and Cockburn (2001, p. 122), what is new about agile methods is not the practices they use, but their recognition of people as the primary drivers of project success, coupled with an intense focus on effectiveness and maneuverability. This yields a new combination of values and principles that define an agile world view. Boehm (2002) illustrates the spectrum of different planning methods with Figure 1, in which hackers are placed at one end and the so called inch-pebble ironbound contractual approach at the opposite end: Hawrysh and Ruprecht (2000) state that a single methodology can not work for the whole spectrum of different projects, but instead the project management should identify the specific nature of the project at hand and then select the bes